Why are there are so few female executives? Evidence from the equality frontier

With Sigtona Halrynjo (ISF), Marte Mangset (OsloMet), and Hege Kitterød (ISF).

In executive business positions, women are few and far between---also in societies otherwise permeated by gender equal norms and high female participation in work and politics. We argue that fighting gender bias and securing national family-friendly policies are likely to be insufficient to achieve gender parity among executives. We argue that the labor market and marriage marked combined puts women, and particularly mothers, at a disadvantage. First, executive careers require both long hours and availability to colleagues and clients outside those hours. Second, whereas ambitious men tend to have less ambitious partners, ambitious women's partners tend to be as ambitious. Thus, children impede women's careers more than men's. We study these arguments with new survey, experimental and qualitative interview data of staff and executives in ten of Norway's largest private enterprises, covering a wide range of sectors (consulting, law, media, construction, and finance). Our data is a unique opportunity to study what holds women back in an egalitarian context: Norway is consistently ranked among the most gender equal countries in the world, yet women's representation in top executive positions remains modest. In this context, we find no evidence of implicit bias or double standards against female candidates. There are additionally no gender differences in stated career ambitions, negotiations for position or pay, or being heard at work. Instead, our results shows that availability for clients and colleagues beyond normal working hours is a key predictor of suitability for executive positions (among both female and male candidates). Indeed, time-consuming demands are closely linked to higher and better paid positions in these firms. We also document that the conditions to meet these demands are skewed against mothers. Whereas fathers' partners typically have jobs with shorter days, less responsibility, and less status, mothers’ partners typically have jobs with longer days, more responsibility, and more status. Our study implies that if businesses wish to promote the best women and men, instead of those with most time to spare, they need to make career success less dependent on 24/7 availability during childrearing years.

Full working paper to be posted summer 2022.